Ruff

European shorebirds displaying three genetically-determined male mating strategies, demonstrating frequency-dependent selection and the satellite strategy concept.

Independent males (60% of population): Defend mating territories on leks, elaborate plumage (expensive to maintain), fight other independents constantly, 12% of copulations. Satellite males (30%): No territory, visit independents' territories, less elaborate plumage (cheaper), tolerated presence, sneak matings while independent fights rivals, 8% of copulations. Female mimics (10%): Plumage resembles females, enter territories undetected, completely avoid combat, 3% of copulations.

Efficiency analysis: Independents get 12% success for 100% effort = 8.3× cost per offspring. Satellites get 8% success for 40% effort = 5× cost per offspring (more efficient). The 60/30/10 equilibrium is stable because satellite success depends on independents existing to exploit.