Blu-ray

DVD had vanquished VHS, but high-definition television was coming. Standard DVDs couldn't hold enough data for HD video. Two competing formats emerged to replace DVD, reprising the VHS-Betamax war with higher stakes.

Blu-ray, developed by Sony and the Blu-ray Disc Association, used a blue-violet laser (405nm wavelength) instead of DVD's red laser (650nm). The shorter wavelength enabled smaller pits and tracks, storing 25GB on a single layer versus DVD's 4.7GB. The format launched in Japan in 2003, with players reaching the US in 2006.

HD DVD, backed by Toshiba and Microsoft, offered a competing approach. It used similar blue laser technology but with different encoding and disc structure. Both formats could deliver high-definition video, but they were mutually incompatible. The industry fragmented—some studios backed Blu-ray, others HD DVD, and consumers hesitated to commit.

The adjacent possible required several elements to mature. Blue laser diodes, difficult to manufacture reliably, needed to reach commercial viability. HDTV penetration had to justify high-definition disc formats. Video compression (MPEG-4 AVC, VC-1) could fit HD content onto the available capacity. Hollywood studios needed content protection schemes they trusted.

The format war ended abruptly in early 2008. Warner Bros., previously supporting both formats, announced Blu-ray exclusivity. Within weeks, major retailers stopped carrying HD DVD. Toshiba surrendered in February 2008, discontinuing HD DVD players. Sony's bitter memories of Betamax's defeat finally found redemption.

Geographic factors reflected consumer electronics power structures. Sony in Tokyo championed Blu-ray, leveraging their film studio (Columbia Pictures) and gaming console (PlayStation 3 included a Blu-ray drive). Toshiba, also Tokyo-based, led HD DVD. Hollywood studios, concentrated in Los Angeles, held decisive power—their format choices determined the outcome. China later developed its own incompatible format (CBHD) for the domestic market.

But Blu-ray's victory proved pyrrhic. Streaming was accelerating even as the format war concluded. Netflix shifted from mail-order DVDs to streaming. iTunes and Amazon offered digital downloads. By 2015, streaming revenue exceeded physical media sales. Blu-ray survived as a niche product for collectors and videophiles seeking maximum quality, but never achieved DVD's mass-market penetration.

By 2025, Ultra HD Blu-ray offered 4K resolution, but the format appealed primarily to home theater enthusiasts. The physical disc format that 'won' the last great format war found itself marginalized by the very digital infrastructure that high-definition displays had helped create.