Predation

"...apses multiple dependent relationships. In Yellowstone National Park, wolves were extirpated in 1926. For 70 years, elk populations exploded without predation pressure. Elk overgrazed willow and aspen in valleys. Without willows stabilizing riverbanks, erosion increased. Rivers widened and meandered."

"...hout risk: - Den flooding: Spring melt or winter rain can flood dens, drowning the bear or forcing emergence into deep winter (usually fatal) - Predation: Wolves, other bears, avalanches - Disturbance: Snowmobiles, late-season hunters, logging operations can force premature waking, burning reserv..."

"probabilistic survival). Evidence: Juncos (small birds) in winter - When fed reliably: Forage in safe, low-quality patches (covered areas, low predation) - When food-deprived: Forage in risky, high-quality patches (exposed areas, high predation, more food) The bird's personality doesn't change - it..."

"... Neither is "better." Both work in their respective environments. Pacific salmon spawn in rivers with unstable conditions - massive floods, droughts, predation. Survival between spawning events is low anyway, so evolution maximized single-event output. Atlantic salmon spawn in more stable rivers - survival b..."

"...n: Carrying an extra 150 pounds reduces running speed, climbing ability, and escape response. A fat bear is slower than a lean bear. This increases predation risk (minimal for adult bears, significant for subadults). Joint stress**: Extra weight increases wear on knees, hips, spine."